Ngokufutshane malunga neyinkimbinkimbi: isakhiwo see-shells ze-atron

Utitshala wephondo we-chemistry uJohn Dalton ngo-1803 wavula "uMthetho woBudlelwane obuninzi". Le ngqungquthela ithi ukuba into ethile yeekhemikhali ingazenza ihlanganiswe nezinye izinto, ngoko inxalenye yesininzi iya kuba nenxalenye yobuninzi bento ethile, kwaye ubudlelwane phakathi kwabo kuya kufana phakathi kwe-integers encinci. Le yimizamo yokuqala yokucacisa isakhiwo esiyinkimbinkimbi yomba. Ngowe-1808, oososayensi ofanayo, ezama ukuchaza umthetho owamfumene nguye, wacetyiswa ukuba kwiimpawu ezihlukeneyo i-atom zinokuthi zibe nezizwe ezahlukeneyo.

Imodeli yokuqala ye-athomu yadalwa ngo-1904. Isakhiwo sekhompyutheni se-atom kulo mzekelo ososayensi ababizwa ngokuba yi "pudding grains". Kwakukholelwa ukuba i-athomu ngumzimba onetyala elihle, apho izakhi zalo zixutywe ngokufanayo. Inkolelo enjalo ayinakuyiphendula loo mbuzo ukuba ngaba iinqununu ze-atom ziyahamba okanye ziphumle. Ngoko ke, phantse ngokufanayo kunye nenkolelo ye "pudding", iJapan yaseNagaoka iphakanyise inkolelo apho isakhiwo segoboloni ye-electron ye-athomu lalifaniswa nesistim somhlaba. Nangona kunjalo, ngokubhekiselele kwinto yokuba xa ukujikeleza malunga ne-atom zayo izakhi kufuneka zilahlekelwe amandla, kwaye oku akuhambelani nemithetho ye-electrodynamics, iVin yalahla inyilo yeeplanethi.

Nangona kunjalo, emva kokufumanisa kwe-electron, kwacaca ukuba isakhiwo se-athomu siyinkimbinkimbi kunokuba bekucingwe. Imibuzo yavela: yintoni i-electron? Ulungiswe njani? Ngaba zikhona ezinye iincinci?

Ekuqaleni kwekhulu lemashumi amabini, ifundiso yeeplanethi yagqitywa ekugqibeleni. Kwacaca ukuba nganye i-elektron, ehambahamba nge-orbit ye-nucleus njengeplanethi ejikeleze i-Sun, inomdla wayo.

Kodwa ezinye iimvavanyo kunye nezifundo ziye zachasisa le ngcamango. Kwaye kwacaca ukuba ii-electron azikho umkhondo wazo, nangona kunjalo, kunokwenzeka ukuba uqikelele ummandla apho le ngqungquthela ihamba ngokuphindaphindiweyo. Ukujikeleza ngeenxa zonke kwinucley, i-electrons yakha i-orbital, ebizwa ngokuba yi-shell shell. Ngoku kwakufuneka ukuba uphando isakhiwo seefoloni zee-athomu. Abafiziki bebanomdla kule mibuzo: njani i-electron ihamba ngokuthe ngqo? Ngaba kukho umyalelo kule ntshukumo? Mhlawumbi intshukumo iyingozi?

Umququzeleli wefilosofi ye-athomu uN. Bohr kunye nenani leenzululwazi ezinkulu ezifanayo zibonakalisile: ii-electron zijikeleza iigoboliti-ziqulatho, kwaye ukuhamba kwazo kuhlangabezana nemithetho ethile. Kwaye kuyimfuneko ukufunda isakhiwo seefolon ze-electron zee-athomu ngokubanzi nangakumbi.

Kubaluleke kakhulu ukuba ukwazi olu lwakhiwo lwemakhemikhali, kuba iipropati zezinto ezi zinto, sele sele zicacile, kuxhomekeka kwisixhobo kunye nokuziphatha kwama-electron. Ukusuka kweli ngcamango, ukuziphatha kwe-electron-orbitals yinto ebaluleke kakhulu kule nxalenye. Kwafunyaniswa ukuba ukufuphi kwisucleus ye-atom i-electrons ikhona, umgudu owenzayo ukuphula i-electron-nucleus bond. Iifowuni ezikufuphi nucleus zinokuxhamla ngokubanzi kunye nalo, kodwa ubuncinci bemithombo yamanzi. Ngaphandle kwee-elektrononi, ngakwelinye icala, ukuxhamla ne-nucleus iyancipha, kwaye ukugcinwa kwamandla kwandisa. Ngaloo ndlela, malunga ne-atom, izakhiwo zekhompyutheni zenziwa. Isakhiwo seengqungquthela ze-electron ze-athomu zacaca. Kwaye kwavela ukuba amanqanaba emandla (izalathisi) zenza iindidi ezikufutshane kwiindawo zokugcina amanzi.

Namhlanje kuyaziwa ukuba inqanaba lamandla lixhomekeke ku-n (le nombolo ye-quantum) kwaye ihambelana nenani elipheleleyo ukusuka ku-1 ukuya ku-7. Isakhiwo seefom e-electron zee-athomu kunye nenani elikhulu lama-elektronari kwinqanaba ngalinye lichongwa ngu-N = 2n2.

Ileta enkulu kule fomyula ichaza inani elikhulu lamakhetroni ngalinye kwinqanaba, kwaye incinci ibonisa inani le-ordinal yale nqanaba.

Isakhiwo segoboloni le-atron se-atom senza ukuba igobolondo yokuqala ayibekho i-atom ezimbini, kwaye yesine-ayikho ngaphaya kwe-32. Inqanaba elingaphandle, elizalisiweyo liqukethe i-electrons ezingaphezu kwe-8. Iziqendu, apho iifowuni zincinci, zithathwa njengezingaphelelanga.